Ways of Healinga field atlas of culture, illness & care

Sources & Safety

where this atlas comes from — and where it ends
Why this page

Every claim in the atlas should trace back to a published source — and every visitor should know exactly what this site can and cannot do.

How to use

Jump to a section below, or search the bibliography by author, year, or title.

Safety & Scope Method & Respect Bibliography
No. 1

Safety & Scope

Read me first

This atlas is

  • An educational field atlas — a student senior project exploring how cultures understand illness, healing, and care.
  • Built from published medical anthropology: peer-reviewed articles, academic books, and course readings, all listed below.
  • A starting point for curiosity — every case links to the sources behind it so you can read further.

It is not

  • Medical advice. Nothing here can diagnose a condition, recommend a treatment, or replace a clinician.
  • A complete account of any culture's medicine. Each case is one documented episode, not a portrait of a whole people.
  • A ranking of healing systems. The atlas compares ways of understanding — it does not score them.
How the AI Field Guide behaves

The Field Guide that appears on case pages and in the AI Guide is an educational assistant with strict boundaries. Its answers are drawn from the atlas's own pages and checked against the sources on this page. Every question takes one of three paths:

Cultural & educational

Answered from atlas content — what a practice means, where it comes from, how a community understands it.

Comparison & concepts

Answered with links into the concept and case pages, so every claim stays traceable.

Medical or personal health

Always receives a safety response pointing to qualified care. Never a diagnosis, treatment, or dosage — no exceptions.

If you need care

This atlas describes how people understand illness — it cannot tell you what to do about one. If you are worried about your health or someone else's, please talk with a licensed clinician or visit a local clinic; in an emergency, call your local emergency number. If language or cost is a barrier, many community health centers offer interpreter services and sliding-scale fees. The barriers this atlas writes about are real — and so is the help.

No. 2

Method & Respect

How this was made

Choosing sources

Cases and concepts are built from peer-reviewed journals (Annals of Internal Medicine, PLoS Medicine, Social Science & Medicine, Medical Anthropology Quarterly and others), academic monographs, and the course readings of a medical anthropology curriculum. Each case and concept page lists the specific sources used on that page.

Citation practice

Citations name the author, year, work, and journal. Where a detail — a page number, a volume — could not be verified against the source itself, it is left out rather than guessed. Quotations appear only where they could be checked.

Writing with respect

Each tradition is described in its own logic and context, without exoticizing and without ranking. Communities are internally diverse: no case speaks for everyone. Biomedicine is treated as one cultural system among others — examined with the same questions, not used as the unmarked standard.

Access & design

The atlas aims for WCAG AA contrast, avoids color as the only carrier of meaning, and keeps definitions in plain language for readers with no background in medical anthropology. Maps, icons, and illustrations are created for this project.

No. 3

Bibliography

57 works
catalogued by hand — anything that couldn't be checked against the source was left out.
Course texts & reference works

Birn, A.-E., Pillay, Y. & Holtz, T. H. (2009). Textbook of International Health: Global Health in a Dynamic World (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Brown, P. J., Inhorn, M. C. & Smith, D. J. (1996). Disease, Ecology, and Human Behavior. In Sargent, C. F. & Johnson, T. M. (Eds.), Medical Anthropology: Contemporary Theory and Method (rev. ed.). Praeger.

McElroy, A. & Townsend, P. K. Medical Anthropology in Ecological Perspective. Westview Press.

Sargent, C. F. & Johnson, T. M. (Eds.) (1996). Medical Anthropology: Contemporary Theory and Method (rev. ed.). Praeger.

Wiley, A. S. & Allen, J. S. Medical Anthropology: A Biocultural Approach. Oxford University Press.

background reading

Winkelman, M. (2009). Culture and Health: Applying Medical Anthropology. Jossey-Bass.

Works cited across the atlas · A–Z

Anderson-Fye, E. (2004). A Coca-Cola Shape: Cultural Change, Body Image, and Eating Disorders in San Andrés, Belize. Culture, Medicine & Psychiatry.

Barrett, R., Kuzawa, C. W., McDade, T. & Armelagos, G. J. (1998). Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases: The Third Epidemiologic Transition. Annual Review of Anthropology, 27.

cited inHIV / AIDS

Becker, A. E. et al. (2002). Eating Behaviours and Attitudes Following Prolonged Exposure to Television Among Ethnic Fijian Adolescent Girls. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180.

Collinge, J. et al. (2006). Kuru in the 21st Century — an Acquired Human Prion Disease with Very Long Incubation Periods. The Lancet, 367.

cited inKuru

Conklin, B. & Morgan, L. (1996). Babies, Bodies, and the Production of Personhood.

Cowman, A. et al. (2016). Malaria: Biology and Disease. Cell.

cited inMalaria

Csordas, T. J. (1990). Embodiment as a Paradigm for Anthropology. Ethos.

cited inEmbodiment

Davis-Floyd, R. & Sargent, C. (1997). Childbirth and Authoritative Knowledge.

Dressler, W., Oths, K. & Gravlee, C. (2005). Race and Ethnicity in Public Health Research. Annual Review of Anthropology.

Eisenberg, L. (1977). Disease and Illness. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry.

Fadiman, A. (1997). The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

Farmer, P. (2004). An Anthropology of Structural Violence. Current Anthropology, 45(3).

Farmer, P., Nizeye, B., Stulac, S. & Keshavjee, S. (2006). Structural Violence and Clinical Medicine. PLoS Medicine, 3(10).

Farmer, P. (1999). Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues. University of California Press.

cited inTB / MDR-TB

Farmer, P. (2003). Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor. University of California Press.

cited inTB / MDR-TB

Gajdusek, D. C., Gibbs, C. J. & Alpers, M. (1966). Experimental Transmission of a Kuru-like Syndrome to Chimpanzees. Nature, 209.

cited inKuru

Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, Peace, and Peace Research. Journal of Peace Research.

Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity.

Hruschka, D. J. (2012). Do Economic Constraints on Food Choice Make People Fat? A Critical Review of Two Hypotheses for the Poverty–Obesity Paradox. American Journal of Human Biology, 24.

Inhorn, M. & Brown, P. (1990). The Anthropology of Infectious Disease. Annual Review of Anthropology.

cited inMalaria

Jenner, E. (1798). An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae.

Jordan, B. (1993). Birth in Four Cultures. Waveland Press.

Kendall, C., Foote, D. & Martorell, R. (1984). Ethnomedicine and Oral Rehydration Therapy. Social Science & Medicine.

Kidder, T. (2003). Mountains Beyond Mountains. Random House.

Kleinman, A. & Benson, P. (2006). Anthropology in the Clinic. PLoS Medicine, 3(10).

Kleinman, A. (1980). Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture. University of California Press.

Kleinman, A. (1995). Writing at the Margin.

Kleinman, A., Eisenberg, L. & Good, B. (1978). Culture, Illness, and Care. Annals of Internal Medicine.

Kohrt, B. A., Jordans, M. J. D., Tol, W. A. et al. (2008). Comparison of Mental Health Between Former Child Soldiers and Children Never Conscripted by Armed Groups in Nepal. JAMA, 300.

Kohrt, B., Tol, W., Pettigrew, J. & Karki, R. (2010). Children and Revolution: Mental Health of Child Soldiers in Nepal.

Leslie, C. (Ed.) (1976). Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study. University of California Press.

Lindenbaum, S. (2008). Understanding Kuru. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B.

cited inKuru

Lock, M. & Gordon, D. (Eds.) (1988). Biomedicine Examined.

Lock, M. & Nguyen, V.-K. (2010). An Anthropology of Biomedicine.

Moerman, D. E. & Jonas, W. B. (2002). Deconstructing the Placebo Effect and Finding the Meaning Response. Annals of Internal Medicine, 136(6).

Moerman, D. E. (2002). Meaning, Medicine and the “Placebo Effect.” Cambridge University Press.

Morgan, L. M. & Michaels, M. (1999). Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions.

Morgan, L. M. (1989). When Does Life Begin? A Cross-Cultural Perspective on the Personhood of Fetuses and Young Children. In Doerr & Prescott (Eds.), Abortion Rights and Fetal “Personhood.”

Needle, R. et al. (2003). RARE: Rapid Assessment, Response and Evaluation. American Journal of Public Health.

Payer, L. (1988/1996). Medicine and Culture: Varieties of Treatment in the United States, England, West Germany, and France. Henry Holt.

Prusiner, S. B. (1982). Novel Proteinaceous Infectious Particles Cause Scrapie. Science, 216.

cited inKuru

Sargent, C. & Bascopé, G. (1996). Ways of Knowing about Birth in Three Cultures. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 10(2).

Scheper-Hughes, N. & Lock, M. (1987). The Mindful Body. Medical Anthropology Quarterly.

Singer, M. & Clair, S. (2003). Syndemics and Public Health. Medical Anthropology Quarterly.

cited inHIV / AIDS

Tervalon, M. & Murray-García, J. (1998). Cultural Humility versus Cultural Competence. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved.

Waxler, N. E. (1981). Learning to Be a Leper: A Case Study in the Social Construction of Illness. In Mishler et al. (Eds.), Social Contexts of Health, Illness, and Patient Care.

Williams, D. R. (1994). The Concept of Race in Health Services Research: 1966 to 1990. Health Services Research, 29(3).

Wolfe, R. & Sharp, L. (2002). Anti-vaccinationists Past and Present. BMJ.

Wong, M. et al. (2002). Contribution of Major Diseases to Disparities in Mortality. NEJM.

Yeatman, G. W. & Dang, V. V. (1980). Cáo Gió (Coin Rubbing): Vietnamese Attitudes Toward Health Care. JAMA, 244(24).

Young, A. (1982). The Anthropologies of Illness and Sickness. Annual Review of Anthropology.

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